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GOVERNMENT, POLITICS, AND LAW |
Paul A. Schulte, Carol Merry Stephenson, Andrea H. Okun, and John Palassis, are with the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cincinnati, Ohio. Elyce Biddle is with the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morgantown, WVa.
Correspondence: Requests for reprints should be sent to Paul Schulte, NIOSH, 4676 Columbia Parkway, MS-C14, Cincinnati, OH 45226 (e-mail: pas4{at}cdc.gov).
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONVOCATIONAL, CAREER, AND...RISKS AND HAZARDS IN...OTHER WORKFORCE PREPARATIONSTIMULATING OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY...INTEGRATING OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY...COMMUNITY-BASED APPROACHESCONCLUSIONSReferences |
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The high rates of injury among young workers are a pressing public health issue, especially given the demand of the job market for new workers. Young and new workers experience the highest rates of occupational injuries of any age group.
Incorporating occupational safety and health (OSH) information into the more than 20 000 vocational and other workforce preparation programs in the United States might provide a mechanism for reducing work-related injuries and illnesses among young and new workers. We assessed the status of including OSH information or training in workforce preparation programs and found there is an inconsistent emphasis on OSH information.
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONVOCATIONAL, CAREER, AND...RISKS AND HAZARDS IN...OTHER WORKFORCE PREPARATIONSTIMULATING OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY...INTEGRATING OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY...COMMUNITY-BASED APPROACHESCONCLUSIONSReferences |
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, Table 1). The practice of incorporating occupational safety and health (OSH) information and training (about hazards and risks of work) into vocational and other training programs has not been widely recommended, and the extent to which this occurs has not been assessed.6,14–16 We review what is known about the status of incorporating OSH into vocational, career, and other technical training. The benefits are believed to include increased job/career knowledge, safer work behaviors, increased competence when dealing with high-risk occupational situations, and reduced incidence of occupational injuries and illnesses.
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Although much vocational and technical education typically takes place when students are in high school, what they may learn in these programs sets the foundation that may affect their work experiences for many years to come. Moreover, the nature and organization of work is changing. Young and new workers can expect to change jobs and employers many times during their working lives.23 Presumably, these changes will lead to an increased likelihood of encountering new or different hazards or risk scenarios, suggesting the importance of an ongoing application of generic OSH knowledge.
Vocational and technical education and other forms of workforce preparation are not confined to young workers. These programs also serve adult workers, who may change careers at various times in their working lives.
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VOCATIONAL, CAREER, AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONVOCATIONAL, CAREER, AND...RISKS AND HAZARDS IN...OTHER WORKFORCE PREPARATIONSTIMULATING OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY...INTEGRATING OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY...COMMUNITY-BASED APPROACHESCONCLUSIONSReferences |
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The wide coverage of vocational education offers a unique opportunity to reach significant numbers of workers with OSH information. The US Office of Vocational and Adult Education reports that virtually every high school student takes at least 1 vocational or career education course, and 1 in 4 students takes 3 or more courses in a single program area.25 In addition, one third of college students are involved in vocational programs, and as many as 40 million adults engage in short-term, postsecondary occupational training.25 The delivery of OSH as a fundamental part of vocational education may set the tone for having these students adopt safe work practices as part of their orientation toward work. Most people aged 20 to 65 years spend one third of their waking hours at work. Yet little time is spent educating workers about the health impact that work can have on their lives and the various ways that they can minimize its negative effects. If students receive OSH information or training as part of secondary and postsecondary vocational education, this may be the only time many workers are exposed to this information.
In 1998, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) examined the results of an unpublished survey conducted by the University of Cincinnati in 1996. The survey polled 50 state departments of education on "vocational education requirements for occupational safety and health" (R. Nester, written communication, 1998). Of the 50 state departments of education, 30 responded. Safety and health requirements for vocational education were mandated by only 40% of the responding states. Although 87% of the respondents indicated that students were evaluated for OSH knowledge in some fashion, the extent and depth of the evaluation was at the discretion of the instructor. Preparation and certification of teachers in OSH was not a requirement for renewing the licenses of vocational education teachers. As for surveillance of injuries and illnesses related to vocational programs, less than half of the responding states (43%) required some form of reporting (R. Nester, written communication, 1998). Historically, the practice of including OSH in various workforce preparation programs in the United Sates has involved textbook writers and publishers, teachers and advisory committees, local school district boards, state–county–municipality regulators, the US military, school insurance companies, federal agencies and organizations involved in OSH, and parents’ organizations. Major textbook publishers in the United States often include in each vocational and technical book an introductory section or chapter on the hazards of the trade.25–27 Depending on the occupation, vocational education teachers generally use 1 to 2 weeks at the beginning of the school year to review hazards and their controls. Each state department of education has developed competencies for their teachers to meet every school year. These competencies include OSH. However, in some cases, vocational and technical educational teachers may have had little or no OSH training. A survey conducted among 200 teachers of vocational education identified factors that would predict their adoption of a potential vocational training safety curriculum.28 Those identified as having the "intention to adopt" the curriculum were teachers with the greatest interest in and awareness of adolescent safety education, the organizational climate, and the relative advantages of the new curriculum over the old one.28
Overall, there is practically no literature that assesses the role and value of OSH training in vocational education.29–31 More broadly, however, a rich literature has been identified that demonstrates the long-term effectiveness of OSH training in work-place training contexts.32–39 Most of the studies identified in this literature were observational rather that experimental in design (i.e., individuals or work groups were not randomly assigned to training vs no training conditions). Therefore, the validity of some of the findings may be influenced by self-selection. Nonetheless, there is a consensus on the importance and effectiveness of workplace training.14,39–41
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RISKS AND HAZARDS IN VOCATIONAL/TECHNICAL SCHOOLS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONVOCATIONAL, CAREER, AND...RISKS AND HAZARDS IN...OTHER WORKFORCE PREPARATIONSTIMULATING OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY...INTEGRATING OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY...COMMUNITY-BASED APPROACHESCONCLUSIONSReferences |
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OTHER WORKFORCE PREPARATION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONVOCATIONAL, CAREER, AND...RISKS AND HAZARDS IN...OTHER WORKFORCE PREPARATIONSTIMULATING OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY...INTEGRATING OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY...COMMUNITY-BASED APPROACHESCONCLUSIONSReferences |
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Skill Standards
At the national level, the national skill standards (Public Law 103–227)48 are a comprehensive approach to achieving skill competencies. The National Skill Standards Board has organized specifications for workforce preparation and adopted a framework of 15 economic sectors to direct its work on developing skill standards for curriculum, certification, and employment. In 1997, NIOSH became a participant in the national skill standards efforts and supported the integration of OSH into the core and concentration skill standards for each sector.6 The first skill standard to use OSH information in core competencies involved manufacturing. Overall, 20% of the language in the manufacturing skill standards pertains to OSH. Although the federal law that established the National Skill Standards Board has expired, the work is still ongoing and will likely affect the curricula of vocational, technical, and other training institutions that strive to produce competitive, competent, skilled, and qualified workers and professionals. The national skill standards also complement the existing national voluntary standard for OSH training developed by the American National Standards Institute.49
Career Clusters
Another approach to promoting workforce preparation is the career clusters initiative. Since 1996, the US Department of Education’s Office of Vocational and Adult Education and states have been working together to develop and implement comprehensive curriculum frameworks for 16 career clusters.3,4 A project initiated in 2002 was designed to ensure that the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and the US Environmental Protection Agency standards be (1) consistently incorporated into the knowledge and skills in the 16 career clusters; (2) linked to related academic standards, especially science standards; and (3) supported by curriculum resources to improve schools’ instruction in safety, health, and the environment. This project is being conducted in cooperation with the National Association of State Directors of Career Technical Education Consortium and various federal partners, including OSHA, NIOSH, the US Environmental Protection Agency, and the US Department of Education.
School-to-Work Programs
In 1994, Congress passed the School-to-Work Opportunities Act7 to ensure that young workers acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to make an effective transition from school to career-oriented work. The potential of the act to provide young workers with critical OSH skills is large and has been recognized, but not realized.50 In 1998, the Institute of Medicine in Protecting Youth at Work recommended the following14: (1) the national evaluation of the School-to-Work Opportunities Act should include a comprehensive assessment of the success of various programs in conveying appropriate and effective workplace safety and health information and training, and (2) those practices found to be effective should continue after the act expired in 2001. We found no reports that described the impact of school-to-work programs on OSH training. However, some school-to-work programs continue.
Workforce Investment Act
The Job Training Partnership Act of 198251 (the forerunner of the Workforce Investment Act) established the largest federally funded civilian training program in the United States.9,11 The purpose of the Job Training Partnership Act was to bring jobless persons into permanent, unsubsidized, and self-sustaining employment by providing training, basic education, job counseling, and placement. The Job Training Partnership Act has included the Migrant and Seasonal Farmworkers Program, the Native American Program, the Summer Youth Employment Training Program, the Youth Fair Channel, and the Job Corps. In 1998, the Work-force Investment Act52 (PL 105–220) enhanced the flexibility of the Job Training Partnership Act legislation.
Apprentice Programs
Apprentice programs are generally considered to be training that is designed to prepare an individual for a career in the skilled crafts and trades. The Code of Federal Regulations12 (29 CFR 29) outlines the requirements for registration of acceptable apprentice programs for federal purposes and sets forth labor standards that safeguard the welfare of apprentices.13 Among the standards is the stipulation that all apprentices receive instructions in safe and healthful work practices, both on the job and in related instructions, that are in compliance with the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (PL 91–596)53 and subsequent amendments and appropriate state standards. Graduates of vocational programs often move into apprentice programs.
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STIMULATING OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH AWARENESS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONVOCATIONAL, CAREER, AND...RISKS AND HAZARDS IN...OTHER WORKFORCE PREPARATIONSTIMULATING OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY...INTEGRATING OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY...COMMUNITY-BASED APPROACHESCONCLUSIONSReferences |
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Another pioneering approach to stimulating OSH awareness involves a pilot program in Texas to deliver the OSHA 10-hour construction course to vocational high school students throughout the state.57 The Texas Engineering Extension Service is partnering with the Texas Industrial Vocational Association to introduce safety and health training in the public schools.57 The pilot program involves training vocational instructors as OSHA construction outreach safety and health trainers. Vocational students are trained in the OSHA 10-hour course and receive a completion card from OSHA Region VI, which provides evidence to employers that a prospective employee has received basic safety training.57
Useful international models exist for stimulating OSH awareness. For example, Australia has national guidelines for integrating OSH competencies into National Industry Competency Standards.58 The stated goal of this effort is to raise the level of OSH competence of the workforce in a consistent and cost-effective manner. Internationally, OSH considerations are included in skills competitions among vocational and technical students.59
In Europe, there are various examples of integrating or "mainstreaming" OSH into education. The goal of these efforts is to make risk management principles and "OSH thinking" an intrinsic part of the way decisions are made and actions are taken in the workplace. In such an atmosphere, OSH will not be just an "add-on." Workers and employers will come to the work-place familiar with OSH and risk prevention.60 Most European Union member states have local or national campaigns to introduce OSH issues into education. Critical conclusions from a 2002 European publication were that risk education and OSH need to be seen as high priorities by stakeholders.60 It is not enough simply to create educational materials and provide them to teachers. Teachers and trainers should be specifically trained in risk evaluation and OSH.
Since 1996, the International Social Security Association has been focusing on the integration of OSH into vocational and technical education.41 In 2003, the second in a series of international meetings was held in Quebec to address how to better integrate OSH into vocational and technical education. At this meeting, attendees were presented with a protocol entitled the Quebec City Protocol for the Integration of Occupational Health and Safety Competencies into Vocational and Technical Education61 The protocol was developed under the auspices of the Commission de la Santé et de la Sécurité du Travail of Quebec and the International Section on Education and Training of the International Social Security Association.41 The protocol recommended that educational organizations, and specifically the business organizations who must provide OSH education in their own fields, adopt the following principles:
Ultimately, the integration of OSH into vocational and technical education will require collaboration between education and OSH disciplines.
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INTEGRATING OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH INTO GENERAL SECONDARY EDUCATION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONVOCATIONAL, CAREER, AND...RISKS AND HAZARDS IN...OTHER WORKFORCE PREPARATIONSTIMULATING OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY...INTEGRATING OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY...COMMUNITY-BASED APPROACHESCONCLUSIONSReferences |
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The draft curriculum is designed to educate young workers regarding 6 broad topics:
In a pilot effort that will occur during the 2005 school year, NIOSH is collaborating with the National Association of State Directors of Career Technical Education Consortium to evaluate the curriculum in public high schools. Ultimately, some variation of this curriculum should be available to the general secondary school system nationwide.
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COMMUNITY–BASED APPROACHES |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONVOCATIONAL, CAREER, AND...RISKS AND HAZARDS IN...OTHER WORKFORCE PREPARATIONSTIMULATING OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY...INTEGRATING OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY...COMMUNITY-BASED APPROACHESCONCLUSIONSReferences |
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CONCLUSIONS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONVOCATIONAL, CAREER, AND...RISKS AND HAZARDS IN...OTHER WORKFORCE PREPARATIONSTIMULATING OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY...INTEGRATING OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY...COMMUNITY-BASED APPROACHESCONCLUSIONSReferences |
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Ultimately, no one in the United States should enter the labor market without an awareness of safety and health risks and methods for dealing with them effectively. Future working generations should be equipped by their training with a genuinely preventive knowledge base that empowers them to participate fully in designing safe workplaces that meet the challenges of an evolving global economy.60
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Acknowledgments |
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Human Participant Protection
No protocol approval was needed for this study.
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Footnotes |
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Contributors
P. Schulte originated the study and developed the first draft based on work of C. M. Stephenson, J. Palassis, and A. H. Okun. All authors edited and reviewed the article. E. Biddle also provided input into the economic assessment.
Accepted for publication July 21, 2004.
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References |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONVOCATIONAL, CAREER, AND...RISKS AND HAZARDS IN...OTHER WORKFORCE PREPARATIONSTIMULATING OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY...INTEGRATING OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY...COMMUNITY-BASED APPROACHESCONCLUSIONSReferences |
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| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
