AJPH
HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
QUICK SEARCH:   [advanced]


     

This Article
Right arrow Extract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Submit a response
Right arrow Purchase Article
Right arrow View Shopping Cart
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me when eLetters are posted
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in ISI Web of Science
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow reprints & permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via ISI Web of Science (4)
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Ananth, C. V.
Right arrow Articles by Vintzileos, A. M.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Ananth, C. V.
Right arrow Articles by Vintzileos, A. M.
Related Collections
Right arrow Birth Outcomes
Right arrow Pregnancy
Right arrow African Americans/Blacks
April 2003, Vol 93, No. 4 | American Journal of Public Health 577-579
© 2003 American Public Health Association

RESEARCH AND PRACTICE

Small-for-Gestational-Age Births Among Black and White Women: Temporal Trends in the United States

Cande V. Ananth, PhD, MPH, Kitaw Demissie, MD, PhD, Michael S. Kramer, MD and Anthony M. Vintzileos, MD

Cande V. Ananth is with the Section of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School/Saint Peter’s University Hospital, New Brunswick. Cande V. Ananth and Kitaw Demissie are with the Division of Epidemiology, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey—School of Public Health, New Brunswick. Michael S. Kramer is with the Departments of Pediatrics and of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, McGill University Faculty of Medicine, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Anthony M. Vintzileos is with the Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School/Saint Peter’s University Hospital, New Brunswick.

Correspondence: Requests for reprints should be sent to Cande V. Ananth, PhD, MPH, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, 125 Paterson St, New Brunswick, NJ 08901-1977 (e-mail: ananthcv{at}epi.umdnj.edu).


   INTRODUCTION
TOP
 INTRODUCTION
METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 References
 
Low birthweight (< 2500 g) is a strong predictor of infant mortality.1 However, low birthweight may be the consequence of preterm birth or restricted fetal growth. During the past 2 decades, preterm birth rates have been increasing in developed countries,2–9 whereas population-based trends in small-for-gestational-age (SGA) births in the United States remain unexplored. Trends in SGA births are important because the severely growth restricted are at increased risk for infant death,10 whereas less severe cases may lead to permanent deficits in growth and neurocognitive development in later childhood11 and increased risk for adult chronic diseases.12

We performed this study to evaluate temporal trends and their determinants in singleton SGA births among term and preterm births to White and Black women in the United States between 1989 and 1998.


   METHODS
TOP
 INTRODUCTION
 METHODS
RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 References
 
The study was based on the US vital statistics data (1989 and 1998) assembled by the National Center for Health Statistics.13,14 SGA birth was defined as a sex-specific birthweight for gestational age less than the 10th percentile, based on 1989 US singleton births.15 To minimize gestational age errors, all analyses were restricted to live-born infants delivered between 28 and 41 completed weeks’ gestation. Births from California, Indiana, Louisiana, Washington, South Dakota, Oklahoma, and Tennessee were excluded because these states do not report data on several potential determinants. Infants with congenital malformations also were excluded.

We first evaluated crude temporal trends in SGA births between 1989 and 1998. We then used logistic regression to sequentially adjust for sociodemographic determinants, followed by medical and obstetrical complications of pregnancy, and finally smoking or alcohol use (because they contained more than 25% missing data). Trends in SGA birth were expressed as percent change in the SGA birth rate between 1989 and 1998 relative to that in 1989, after transforming odds ratios to relative risks.16


   RESULTS
TOP
 INTRODUCTION
 METHODS
 RESULTS
DISCUSSION
 References
 
Term SGA birth rates declined by 8.2% between 1989 (9.8%) and 1998 (9.0%) among Whites and by 10.3% (19.4% in 1989 and 17.4% in 1998) among Blacks. Preterm SGA birth rates increased by 10.2% (8.8% in 1989 and 9.7% in 1998) among Whites and by 21.4% (10.3% in 1989 and 12.5% in 1998) among Blacks.

After adjusting for sociodemographic determinants, further adjustment for marital status increased the decline in SGA birth rate at term to 11.8% and 11.3% among Whites and Blacks, respectively (Table 1Go). Additional adjustment for smoking led to a major reduction in the decline in SGA birth rate among both races. However, none of the other determinants examined helped account for the decline in term SGA birth rates. Similar trends were noted (data not shown) for pregnancies with and without obstetrical interventions (labor induction and cesarean delivery).


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		TABLE 1—— Change (%) in Rates (Unadjusted and Adjusted) of Term Small-for-Gestational-Age (SGA) Births to White and Black Women, 1989 to 1998
 
Among preterm births with interventions, SGA birth rates increased by 4.3% and 13.5% among Whites and Blacks, respectively; among those without interventions, SGA birth rates were relatively unchanged for Whites (0.2%) but increased by 9.4% for Blacks (Table 2Go). After adjusting for the sociodemographic and behavioral determinants, the rise in SGA birth rate among pregnancies with interventions in Whites disappeared with further adjustment for pregnancy-induced hypertension and declined slightly among Blacks. Because the proportion of smokers declined between 1989 and 1998, SGA rates increased when smoking was adjusted for in the model. The corresponding data among Blacks indicated a rise in the crude preterm SGA birth rate that was not explained by any of the determinants examined.


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		TABLE 2—— Change (%) in Rates (Unadjusted and Adjusted) of Preterm Small-for-Gestational-Age (SGA) Births to White and Black Women With and Without Interventions, 1989 to 1998
 

   DISCUSSION
TOP
 INTRODUCTION
 METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
References
 
Results from our study indicate that the rates of term SGA births declined between 1989 and 1998 among Whites and Blacks. However, during the same period rates of preterm SGA births increased for both races. Because the preterm SGA trends varied by whether the pregnancy was terminated through an intervention, we evaluated these temporal trends separately.

Intrauterine growth restriction, which is usually defined operationally as SGA, is an indication for labor induction, especially among preterm pregnancies. Intrauterine growth restriction also can result from pathological conditions, such as pregnancyinduced hypertension (including preeclampsia) or placental abruption.17,18 Among Whites, an increase in interventions for pregnancyinduced hypertension helped explain most of the increase in preterm SGA births. However, adjustment for these determinants did not explain the puzzling increase in preterm SGA births among Blacks. Although rates of chronic hypertension, pregnancy-induced hypertension, and diabetes have increased more in Blacks than in Whites in the United States, the magnitude of the Black–White disparity in these changes was modest (data not shown). The severity of these complications also may have increased more in Blacks than in Whites, which might explain the observed trends.

A few unexplored factors also might help account for the SGA trends. Among them are changes in maternal anthropometry19 and illicit drug use during pregnancy,20 which are unavailable in vital statistics data. The presence or absence of labor is unfortunately not recorded, thereby making it difficult to separate "cold" cesarean deliveries from cesarean deliveries after a trial of labor.


   Acknowledgments
 
This study was supported, in part, through a grant from the National Institutes of Health (R01-HD38902).

This article was presented in part at the Society for Pediatric and Perinatal Epidemiologic Research Annual Meeting, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, June 11–12 2001.

The authors are grateful to Susan Fosbre for help with the manuscript preparation.

Human Participant Protection

This study was approved by the Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey’s institutional review board.


   Footnotes
 
C. V. Ananth conceived the idea for the study, assembled and analyzed the data, and drafted the brief. K. Demissie, M. S. Kramer, and A. M. Vintzileos reviewed the brief, offered comments, and helped edit the brief.

Peer Reviewed

Accepted for publication August 21, 2002.


   References
TOP
 INTRODUCTION
 METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 References
 
1. McCormick MC. The contribution of low birth weight to infant mortality and childhood morbidity. N Engl J Med. 1985;312:82–90.[Abstract]

2. Demissie K, Rhoads GG, Ananth CV, et al. Trends in preterm birth and neonatal mortality among blacks and whites in the United States from 1989 to 1997. Am J Epidemiol.2001;154:307–315.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

3. Joseph KS, Kramer MS, Marcoux S, et al. Determinants of preterm birth rates in Canada from 1981 through 1983 and from 1992 through 1994. N Engl J Med.1998;339:1434–1439.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

4. Kramer MS, Platt R, Yang H, et al. Secular trends in preterm birth: a hospital-based cohort study. JAMA.1998;280:1849–1854.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

5. Arbuckle TE, Sherman GJ. An analysis of birth weight by gestational age in Canada. Can Med Assoc J.1989;140:157–165.[Abstract]

6. Alberman E. Are our babies becoming bigger? J R Soc Med.1991;84:257–260.[Abstract]

7. Skjaerven R, Gjessing HK, Bakketeig LS. Birthweight by gestational age in Norway. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand.2001;79:440–449.

8. Orskou J, Kesmodel U, Henriksen TB, Secher NJ. An increasing proportion of infants weigh more than 4000 grams at birth. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand.2001;80:931–936.[ISI][Medline]

9. Ananth CV, Wen SW. Trends in fetal growth among singleton gestations in the United States and Canada, 1985 through 1998. Semin Perinatol.2002;26:260–267.[ISI][Medline]

10. Cnattingius S, Haglund B, Kramer MS. Differences in late fetal death rates in association with determinants of small for gestational age fetuses: population based cohort study. BMJ.1998;316:1483–1487.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

11. Goldenberg RL, Hoffman HJ, Cliver SP. Neurodevelopmental outcome of small-for-gestational-age infants. Eur J Clin Nutr.1998;52(suppl 1):S54–S58.

12. Barker DJP, Osmond C. Infant mortality, childhood nutrition, and ischaemic heart disease in England and Wales. Lancet.1986;1:1077–1081.[ISI][Medline]

13. MacDorman MF, Atkinson JO. Infant mortality statistics from the linked birth/infant death data set—1995 period data. Month Vital Stat Rep. 1998;46(6)(suppl 2):1–220.

14. Taffel S, Johnson D, Heuse R. A method of imputing length of gestation on birth certificates. Vital Health Stat 2.1982;93:1–11.

15. Zhang J, Bowes WA Jr. Birth-weight-for-gestational-age patterns by race, sex, and parity in the United States population. Obstet Gynecol.1995;86:200–208.[Abstract]

16. Zhang J, Yu FK. What’s the relative risk? A method of correcting the odds ratio in cohort studies of common outcomes. JAMA.1998;280:1690–1691.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

17. Zeitlin J, Ancel PY, Saurel-Cubizolles MJ, Papiernik E. The relationship between intrauterine growth restriction and preterm delivery: an empirical approach using data from a European case-control study. Br J Obstet Gynaecol.2000;107:750–758.

18. Ananth CV, Wilcox AJ. Placental abruption and perinatal mortality in the United States. Am J Epidemiol.2001;153:332–337.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

19. Kramer MS. Socioeconomic determinants of intrauterine growth retardation. Eur J Clin Nutr.1998;52(suppl):S29–S32.

20. Linn S, Schoenbaum SC, Monson RR, Rosner R, Stubblefield PC, Ryan KJ. The association of marijuana use with outcome of pregnancy: prevalence and correlates. Am J Public Health.1983;73:1161–1164.[Abstract/Free Full Text]





This Article
Right arrow Extract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Submit a response
Right arrow Purchase Article
Right arrow View Shopping Cart
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me when eLetters are posted
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in ISI Web of Science
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow reprints & permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via ISI Web of Science (4)
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Ananth, C. V.
Right arrow Articles by Vintzileos, A. M.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Ananth, C. V.
Right arrow Articles by Vintzileos, A. M.
Related Collections
Right arrow Birth Outcomes
Right arrow Pregnancy
Right arrow African Americans/Blacks

HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
Copyright © 2003 by the American Public Health Association