HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS		QUICK SEARCH:   [advanced] Author: Keyword(s): Year:  Vol:  Page:

This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) Submit a response View Shopping Cart Alert me when this article is cited Alert me when eLetters are posted Alert me if a correction is posted Services Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in ISI Web of Science Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via ISI Web of Science (73) Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Harrell, J. P. Articles by Taliaferro, J. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Harrell, J. P. Articles by Taliaferro, J. Related Collections Community Health Social Science Other Race/Ethnicity Urban Health Cardiovascular Disease

Jules P. Harrell, PhD, Sadiki Hall, BA and James Taliaferro, BA

The authors are with the Department of Pscyhology, Howard University, Washington, DC.

Correspondence: Requests for reprints should be sent to Jules P. Harrell, PhD, Department of Psychology, Howard University, 525 Bryant St NW, Room N270, Washington, DC 20059 (e-mail: jharrell{at}howard.edu).

	ABSTRACT

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION STUDIES OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL... EMPIRICAL FINDINGS CONCLUSIONS References

 

A growing body of research explores the impact of encounters with racism or discrimination on physiological activity. Investigators have collected these data in laboratories and in controlled clinical settings. Several but not all of the studies suggest that higher blood pressure levels are associated with the tendency not to recall or report occurrences identified as racist and discriminatory.

Investigators have reported that physiological arousal is associated with laboratory analogues of ethnic discrimination and mistreatment. Evidence from survey and laboratory studies suggests that personality variables and cultural orientation moderate the impact of racial discrimination. The neural pathways that mediate these physiological reactions are not known.

The evidence supports the notion that direct encounters with discriminatory events contribute to negative health outcomes.

	INTRODUCTION

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION STUDIES OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL... EMPIRICAL FINDINGS CONCLUSIONS References

 
RACISM OPERATES WITHIN objective life conditions, popular culture, and religious and educational institutions.¹ Williams² listed racism among basic causes in a framework that described the relationship between health and race, arguing that racism shapes other important social determinants of health outcomes, including economic resources and the availability and nature of health care. The individual acts of bias and interpersonal discrimination that grow out of racism represent its latter-day, or surface,^2(p328) manifestations. They are salt in wounds previously inflicted by a host of negative life events whose relationship to racism is often cloaked. Indeed, it is likely that, at the point at which people encounter these individual forms of racism, other racist institutional and cultural forces already have encroached on their lives.¹

Here we describe a sample of studies focusing on the impact of various forms of racism on physiological activity. We selected reports from the medical literature and social science literature in which investigators directly measured physiological responses. The racially stressful material in the reports was either recalled or experimentally imposed.

	STUDIES OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL IMPACT OF RACISM

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION STUDIES OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL... EMPIRICAL FINDINGS CONCLUSIONS References

 
Laboratory experiments dominate investigations of the physiological consequences of racism. However, several important survey research projects have measured physiological activity. The laboratory studies expose individuals to analogues of racist events, whereas the survey studies focus on racism as perceived by the participant. Although the approaches differ substantially, both sets of studies provide evidence that is crucial to our understanding of the relationship between health and racial oppression. They have tested the proposition that analogues of racist events or memories of these encounters result in physiological arousal or negative health sequelae. Complex designs can identify factors that contribute to individual differences in responses to discrimination, determine the uniqueness of patterns of physiological reactions, or uncover the neural pathways that mediate these physiological effects.

Table 1 describes 4 paradigms available to researchers in this area. In self-report correlational studies, participants disclose their perceptions of the number and kinds of experiences they have had with racism or racial discrimination. Such studies seek to determine whether these reports correlate with changes in physiological arousal. Some investigations have revealed that personality and coping processes moderate the relationships between discrimination and physiological variables.

A hybrid method combines the correlational and psychophysiological approaches. Studies of this type employ laboratory challenges that are known to elicit physiological responding. Investigators determine the relationship between physiological reactions to the challenges and reports of discrimination or racism, testing the hypothesis that encounters with discrimination will heighten general physiological reactivity. The notion that enhanced reactivity to stressors forecasts onset of disease has received a modicum of support.³

The moderated psychophysiological approach employs personality measures as predictors of individual differences in physiological responses to racist events. Hence, studies involving this approach retain the capacity to generate cause–effect statements about the relationship between racial discrimination and physiological activity. They also shed light on the characteristics of individuals that moderate responsiveness to racial stressors.

Mediated psychophysiological studies would intensify the search for the mechanisms responsible for physiological change; unfortunately, no published reports of the mediators of racism effects are available. Studies involving this approach would administer selective pharmacological neural blocks as stressful events are encountered. Statistical strategies can also be employed in the search for mediators of physiological responses.⁴ These investigations form the foundation for strong causal statements regarding the physiological pathways mediating the effects of stress on disease.

Cacioppo and his colleagues^5,6 have summarized the inferences that psychophysiological studies allow about the relationships between physiological and psychological processes. They have described these inferences in terms of 2 continua. One represents the specificity of the relationship between the physiological and psychological domains. One-to-one relationships exist at the far end of this continuum. Here investigators show that a particular response or pattern of responses is exclusive to a psychological disposition. The opposing end, where several psychological states may elicit the same physiological responses, marks the region of many-to-one relationships. A one-to-one relationship between racial bias and physiological responses would imply that a unique pattern of physiological reactions occurs when bias is encountered.

The second continuum specifies the conditions under which the relationship between physiological and psychological variables emerges. The relationship is context dependent when it occurs in selected settings or with individuals who share particular characteristics. Context-free findings exist in all settings and with all types of participants. Exploring the contextual nature of the impact of racial discrimination on physiological processes might entail contrasting the responses of African Americans and Whites.

In Cacioppo’s framework, studies producing outcomes and concomitants are similar with respect to the specificity dimension. These studies of discrimination and physiological activity are not concerned with demonstrating that reactions to racially noxious events are unique or exclusive to racism. Outcomes exist when studies make no attempt to generalize the relationship beyond the present context. However, concomitant relationships are inferred in instances in which studies manipulate context to determine whether the findings generalize across settings or groups. Experiments designed to establish markers or invariants search for exclusivity or uniqueness in physiological responses to racism. When investigators focus on establishing invariants, they attempt to show that exclusive relationships will hold for all groups and in all settings. These relationships would be markers if the study is designed to demonstrate unique responses to racism but only in a specific setting or group.

	EMPIRICAL FINDINGS

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION STUDIES OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL... EMPIRICAL FINDINGS CONCLUSIONS References

 
Table 2 sorts a sample of studies on discrimination and physiological activity according to paradigm and type of inference allowed; a majority of the studies listed involved the moderated psychophysiological approach. No investigation claims to establish pure exclusivity or absolutely context-free findings. Rather, we specified how facets of each design address the specificity and contextual nature of the relationships between physiological responses and racism.

Table 2 shows that reports of discrimination relate to blood pressure through complex interactions with coping styles.^11,12 Krieger and Sidney¹¹ reported support for early survey findings indicating that a passive posture and denial of discriminatory treatment were related to higher blood pressure readings. James et al.¹² found that the "John Henryism" active coping style and unfair racial treatment were related to elevated blood pressure among successful men. Two reports related physiological reactivity to laboratory tasks to experiences with racism and discrimination. Guyll and associates¹³ found that diastolic blood pressure reactivity to a speech stressor was enhanced among individuals who had experienced discrimination. Supportive of Krieger and Sidney’s findings, Bowen-Reid and Harrell¹⁴ reported an inverse relationship between discrimination and cardiovascular activity; individuals who reported experiences with racism were less reactive to a mirror tracer task.

Studies of cultural orientation and physiological activity have produced more consistent results. This research is important because a central facet of racism is disruption of the cultural fabric of the oppressed group.^1,15,16 The cultural aspect of racism is best measured in terms of the manner in which the values of individuals have been influenced. Three studies listed in Table 2 suggest that cardiovascular measures are related to cultural affinities when culture is considered with other contextual variables.

Dressler and colleagues^17,18 have refined measures of incongruity and consonance of cultural values that are associated with blood pressure. They have shown that individuals who report materialistic aspirations beyond their means or espouse cultural values that differ from community consensus tend to have elevated blood pressure levels. Daniels et al.¹⁹ measured tendencies to embrace the mainstream American cultural values of materialism, individualism, and competition. Results showed that blood pressure was higher among African American men with stronger mainstream orientations.

Discussion of Survey Studies
Refined measures of discrimination and personality would clarify the contradictory findings reported in studies involving self-report strategies. Several measures of perceived racism and discrimination are available.^20,21 The precision of these instruments must be tested within modern models of racism.^1,16 Furthermore, individuals high in neuroticism may exaggerate reports of negative life events. Other factors, known as response sets,²² may influence people’s willingness and ability to recall discriminatory events. These factors include social desirability and acquiescence. Future studies should include measures that would adjust for the tendency to deny or embellish reports of racism and discrimination.

Experimental Study Results
Basic and moderated psychophysiological paradigms impose racist or discriminatory events on individuals in the laboratory. Investigators have successfully structured stressful racist encounters using manipulations of social situations, tasks that require participants to debate or make speeches, and imagined and viewed scenes.^23–31 Blascovich et al.²⁵ applied the stereotype threat procedure, in which participants are led to believe that racial factors may have an impact on task performance. They found that adding racial elements to a task enhanced its effect on physiological responses. Armstead et al.²³ and McNeilly et al.²⁴ showed that viewing or debating racist material produces greater blood pressure changes than viewing or debating nonracist material, but others have reported that exposures to events with racial overtones and other forms of stress result in similar responses.^26–29

The search for the sources of individual differences in responses to racism has been less than systematic, and much work remains to be done. Within the moderated psychophysiological literature, we located 5 projects that included measures of personality. Two studies reported weak relationships between Black identity and physiological responses to racism.^30,31 Hostility, anger, and elements of the type A personality pattern have shown limited predictive utility.^23,26,29 Studies of psychological stress and disease require attention to individual differences in responding.³² Research of this type will identify those most vulnerable to the impact of racism.

Discussion of Experimental Studies
Researchers have been generally successful in demonstrating that racist material, as with other forms of stress, elicits physiological arousal. It is not possible to argue from the existing findings that the different responses to racism are unique. In the few studies in which responses to racial material appeared to exceed responses to other stressors, rival hypotheses are tenable. For example, increasing the social complexity or level of threat in the racial situation may account for enhanced reactivity.

The limited utility of traditional personality measures as predictors of responses to racism encourages investigators to fashion new strategies. The findings from selfreport studies encourage investigators to include measures of cultural orientation among predictors of laboratory responses to racism. However, cultural values such as spirituality and communalism may exert their influence on longer term responses to racism. These variables may affect how events are reappraised long after their occurrence. Laboratory designs are limited to measuring immediate reactions to and short-term recovery from racism. Although the effects of cultural orientation may be more apparent in field studies of racism in which ambulatory measures are obtained, such effects may also emerge in laboratory studies.

	CONCLUSIONS

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION STUDIES OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL... EMPIRICAL FINDINGS CONCLUSIONS References

 
One challenge facing future researchers is that of refining the study of individual differences in responses to racism. The focus thus far has been on personality dimensions, such as hostility and racial or cultural identity, that may produce exaggerated responses. A separate set of variables render some individuals resilient against the ravages of racism. Research will determine whether traditional cultural variables such as spirituality and communalism buffer the impact of racism.

Because survey research usually assesses perceptions of racism, it can explore the important subtler aspects of racism, including cultural and institutional forms. These types of racism often reside within social structures and persist even as legal and social sanctions discourage more blatant interpersonal racism.^1,15 Laboratory studies have focused largely on the effects of individual racial discrimination and other negative interpersonal episodes. The challenge remains that of developing experimental paradigms that would allow determination of the physiological effects of institutional and cultural racism.

It is essential to locate the physiological mediators of the effects of racism. Indeed, brain imaging technology has helped identify cholinergic pathways that link anxiety and cardiovascular reactions.³³ Encounters with certain forms of racism certainly increase anxiety. They also tend to cause one to worry and to rehearse defensive and aggressive actions. Mediation studies that employ pharmacological blocks and brain imaging techniques will reveal similarities and differences between the psychophysiology of anxiety, rumination, and experienced racism, which will assist in establishing unique facets of physiological responses to racism.

Ultimately, research will reveal the relative impact of racist encounters on persistent health disparities. Models of allostasis and allodynamism show that physiological set points and the mechanisms governing them are not fixed.³⁴ External stressors can permanently alter physiological functioning. Racism increases the volume of stress one experiences³⁵ and may contribute directly to the physiological arousal that is a marker of stress-related diseases.³⁶

	Footnotes

 
J. P. Harrell developed the framework for this article and served as the principal writer. S. Hall and J. Taliaferro executed literature searches, drafted short summaries of empirical findings, and assisted in the editing of the final version.

Peer Reviewed

Accepted for publication October 24, 2002.

	References

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION STUDIES OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL... EMPIRICAL FINDINGS CONCLUSIONS References

 
1. Harrell CJP. Manichean Psychology: Racism and the Minds of People of African Descent. Washington, DC: Howard University Press; 1999.

2. Williams DR. Race and health: basic questions, emerging directions. Ann Epidemiol. 1997;7:322–333.[Web of Science][Medline]

3. Carroll D, Smith GD, Shipley MJ, Steptoe A, Brunner EJ, Marmot MG. Blood pressure reactions to acute psychological stress and future blood pressure status: a 10-year follow-up of men in the Whitehall II Study. Psychosom Med. 2001;63:737–743.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

4. Baron RM, Kenny DA. The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1986;51:1173–1182.[Web of Science][Medline]

5. Cacioppo JT, Tassinary LG. Inferring psychological significance from physiological signals. Am Psychol. 1990;45:16–28.[Medline]

6. Cacioppo JT, Tassinary LG, Berntson GG. Psychophysiological science. In: Cacioppo JT, Tassinary LG, Berntson GG, eds. Handbook of Psychophysiology. 2nd ed. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press; 2000:3–23.

7. Karlsen S, Nazroo JY. Relation between racial discrimination, social class, and health among ethnic minority groups. Am J Public Health. 2002;92:624–631.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

8. Broman CL. The health consequences of racial discrimination: a study of African Americans. Ethn Dis. 1996;6:148–153.[Medline]

9. Jackson JS, Brown TN, Williams DR, Torres M, Sellers SL, Brown K. Racism and the physical and mental health status of African Americans: a thirteen year national panel study. Ethn Dis. 1996;6:132–147.[Medline]

10. Krieger N. Racial and gender discrimination: risk factors for high blood pressure? Soc Sci Med. 1990;30:1273–1281.

11. Krieger N, Sidney S. Racial discrimination and blood pressure: the CARDIA study of young black and white adults. Am J Public Health. 1996;86:1370–1378.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

12. James SA, LaCroix AZ, Klenbaum DG, Strogatz DS. John Henryism and blood pressure differences among black men: II. The role of occupational stressors. J Behav Med. 1984;7:259–275.[Web of Science][Medline]

13. Guyll M, Matthews KA, Bromberger JT. Discrimination and unfair treatment: relationship to cardiovascular reactivity among African American and European American women. Health Psychol. 2001;20:315–325.[Web of Science][Medline]

14. Bowen-Reid TL, Harrell JP. Racist experiences and health outcomes: an examination of spirituality as a buffer. J Black Psychol. 2002;28:18–36.[Abstract]

15. Semmes CE. Cultural Hegemony and African American Development. Westport, Conn: Praeger; 1992.

16. Jones J. Prejudice and Racism. 2nd ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co; 1997.

17. Dressler WW. Lifestyle, stress, and blood pressure in a southern black community. Psychosom Med. 1990;52:182–198.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

18. Dressler WW, Bindon JR. The health consequences of cultural consonance: cultural dimensions of lifestyle, social support, and arterial blood pressure in an African American community. Am Anthropologist. 2000;102:244–260.

19. Daniels IN, Harrell JP, Floyd LJ, Bell SR. Hostility, cultural orientation and casual blood pressure readings in African Americans. Ethn Dis. 2001;11:779–787.[Medline]

20. McNeilly MD, Robinson EL, Anderson NB, et al. The Perceived Racism Scale: a multidimensional assessment of the experience of white racism among African Americans. Ethn Dis. 1996;6:154–166.[Medline]

21. Landrine H, Klonoff E. The Schedule of Racist Events: a measure of racial discrimination and a study of its negative physical and mental health consequences. J Black Psychol. 1996;22:144–168.[Abstract]

22. Wiggins JS. Personality and Prediction: Principles of Personality Assessment. Boston, Mass: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co; 1973.

23. Armstead CA, Lawler KA, Gorden G, Cross J, Gibbons J. Relationship of racial stressors to blood pressure and anger expression in black college students. Health Psychol. 1989;8:541–556.[Web of Science][Medline]

24. McNeilly MD, Robinson EL, Anderson NB, et al. Effects of racist provocation and social support on cardiovascular reactivity in African American women. Int J Behav Med. 1995;2:321–338.[Web of Science][Medline]

25. Blascovich J, Spencer SJ, Quinn D, Steele C. African Americans and high blood pressure: the role of stereotype threat. Psychol Sci. 2001;12:225–229.[Web of Science][Medline]

26. Sutherland ME, Harrell JP. Individual differences in physiological responses to fearful, racially noxious and neutral imagery. Imagination Cogn Pers. 1986;6:133–150.

27. Morris-Prather CE, Harrell JP, Collins R, Jeffries Leonard KL, Boss M, Lee JW. Gender differences in mood and cardiovascular responses to socially stressful stimuli. Ethn Dis. 1996;6:109–122.[Medline]

28. Kinzie JD, Denney D, Riley C, Boehnlein J, McFarland B, Leung P. A cross-cultural study of reactivation of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms: American and Cambodian psychophysiological responses to viewing traumatic video scenes. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1998;186:670–676.[Web of Science][Medline]

29. Fang CY, Myers HF. The effects of racial stressors and hostility on cardiovascular reactivity in African American and Caucasian men. Health Psychol. 2001;20:64–70.[Web of Science][Medline]

30. Jones DR, Harrell JP, Morris-Prather CE, Thomas J, Omowale N. Affective and physiological responses to racism: the roles of Afrocentrism and mode of presentation. Ethn Dis. 1996;6:109–123.

31. Torres A, Bowens L. Correlations between the internalization theme of the Racial Identity Attitude Survey-B and systolic blood pressure. Ethn Dis. 2000;10:375–383.[Medline]

32. Harrell JP. Psychological factors and hypertension: a status report. Psychol Bull. 1980;87:482–501.[Web of Science][Medline]

33. Berntson GG, Sarter M, Cacioppo JT. Anxiety and cardiovascular reactivity: the basal forebrain cholinergic link. Behav Brain Res. 1998;94:225–248.[Web of Science][Medline]

34. Berntson GG, Cacioppo JT. From homeostasis to allodynamic regulation. In: Cacioppo JT, Tassinary LG, Berntson GG, eds. Handbook of Psychophysiology. 2nd ed. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press; 2000.

35. Clark R, Anderson NB, Clark VR, Williams DR. Racism as a stressor for African Americans: a biopsychosocial model. Am Psychol. 1999;54:805–816.[Medline]

36. Henry JP, Liu J, Meehan WP. Psychosocial stress and experimental hypertension. In: Laragh JH, Brenner BM, eds. Hypertension: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis and Management. New York, NY: Raven Press; 1995:905–921.

This article has been cited by other articles:

				K. Fujishiro and C. A. Heaney Justice at Work, Job Stress, and Employee Health Health Educ Behav, June 1, 2009; 36(3): 487 - 504. [Abstract] [PDF]

				L. Becares, M. Stafford, and J. Nazroo Fear of racism, employment and expected organizational racism: their association with health Eur J Public Health, May 29, 2009; (2009) ckp071v1. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				D. H. Chae and K. L. Walters Racial Discrimination and Racial Identity Attitudes in Relation to Self-Rated Health and Physical Pain and Impairment Among Two-Spirit American Indians/Alaska Natives Am J Public Health, April 1, 2009; 99(S1): S144 - S151. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				E. Brondolo, D. J. Libby, E.-g. Denton, S. Thompson, D. L. Beatty, J. Schwartz, M. Sweeney, J. N. Tobin, A. Cassells, T. G. Pickering, et al. Racism and Ambulatory Blood Pressure in a Community Sample Psychosom Med, January 1, 2008; 70(1): 49 - 56. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				Response by Kneipp West J Nurs Res, November 1, 2007; 29(7): 893 - 895. [PDF]

				G. C. Gee, M. S. Spencer, J. Chen, and D. Takeuchi A Nationwide Study of Discrimination and Chronic Health Conditions Among Asian Americans Am J Public Health, July 1, 2007; 97(7): 1275 - 1282. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				T. R. Taylor, C. D. Williams, K. H. Makambi, C. Mouton, J. P. Harrell, Y. Cozier, J. R. Palmer, L. Rosenberg, and L. L. Adams-Campbell Racial Discrimination and Breast Cancer Incidence in US Black Women: The Black Women's Health Study Am. J. Epidemiol., July 1, 2007; 166(1): 46 - 54. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				G. C. Gee, J. Delva, and D. T. Takeuchi Relationships Between Self-Reported Unfair Treatment and Prescription Medication Use, Illicit Drug Use, and Alcohol Dependence Among Filipino Americans Am J Public Health, May 1, 2007; 97(5): 933 - 940. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				R. T. Carter Racism and Psychological and Emotional Injury: Recognizing and Assessing Race-Based Traumatic Stress The Counseling Psychologist, January 1, 2007; 35(1): 13 - 105. [Abstract] [PDF]

				Y. Paradies A systematic review of empirical research on self-reported racism and health Int. J. Epidemiol., August 1, 2006; 35(4): 888 - 901. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				G. C. Gee, J. Chen, M. S. Spencer, S. See, O. A. Kuester, D. Tran, and D. Takeuchi Social Support as a Buffer for Perceived Unfair Treatment Among Filipino Americans: Differences Between San Francisco and Honolulu Am J Public Health, April 1, 2006; 96(4): 677 - 684. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				R. Nairn, F. Pega, T. McCreanor, J. Rankine, and A. Barnes Media, Racism and Public Health Psychology J Health Psychol, March 1, 2006; 11(2): 183 - 196. [Abstract] [PDF]

				R. Clark, R. A. Benkert, and J. M. Flack Violence Exposure and Optimism Predict Task-Induced Changes in Blood Pressure and Pulse Rate in a Normotensive Sample of Inner-City Black Youth Psychosom Med, January 1, 2006; 68(1): 73 - 79. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				C. C. Gravlee, W. W. Dressler, and H. R. Bernard Skin Color, Social Classification, and Blood Pressure in Southeastern Puerto Rico Am J Public Health, December 1, 2005; 95(12): 2191 - 2197. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				T. Bryant-Davis and C. Ocampo Racist Incident-Based Trauma The Counseling Psychologist, July 1, 2005; 33(4): 479 - 500. [Abstract] [PDF]

				M. O. Caughy, P. J. O'Campo, and C. Muntaner Experiences of Racism Among African American Parents and the Mental Health of Their Preschool-Aged Children Am J Public Health, December 1, 2004; 94(12): 2118 - 2124. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				R. Clark Interethnic Group and Intraethnic Group Racism: Perceptions and Coping in Black University Students Journal of Black Psychology, November 1, 2004; 30(4): 506 - 526. [Abstract] [PDF]

				R. Clark Subjective Stress and Coping Resources Interact to Predict Blood Pressure Reactivity in Black College Students Journal of Black Psychology, November 1, 2003; 29(4): 445 - 462. [Abstract] [PDF]

				R. Clark Parental History of Hypertension and Coping Responses Predict Blood Pressure Changes in Black College Volunteers Undergoing a Speaking Task About Perceptions of Racism Psychosom Med, November 1, 2003; 65(6): 1012 - 1019. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) Submit a response View Shopping Cart Alert me when this article is cited Alert me when eLetters are posted Alert me if a correction is posted Services Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in ISI Web of Science Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via ISI Web of Science (73) Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Harrell, J. P. Articles by Taliaferro, J. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Harrell, J. P. Articles by Taliaferro, J. Related Collections Community Health Social Science Other Race/Ethnicity Urban Health Cardiovascular Disease