| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
|
|
|
|||||||
|
|||||||||
RESEARCH AND PRACTICE |
Melanie A. Wakefield is with the Center for Behavioral Research in Cancer, Anti-Cancer Council of Victoria, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Yvonne M. TerryMcElrath is with the Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Frank J. Chaloupka and Sandy J. Slater are with the Health Research and Policy Centers, University of Illinois at Chicago. Frank J. Chaloupka is also with the Department of Economics, University of Illinois at Chicago. Dianne C. Barker is with Barker Bi-Coastal Health Consultants, Calabasas, Calif. Pamela I. Clark is with Battelle Centers for Public Health Research and Evaluation, Baltimore, Md. Gary A. Giovino is with the Department of Cancer Prevention, Epidemiology, and Biostatistics, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, NY.
Correspondence: Requests for reprints should be sent to Melanie A. Wakefield, PhD, Center for Behavioral Research in Cancer, Anti-Cancer Council of Victoria, 1 Rathdowne St, Carlton, Victoria 3053, Australia (e-mail: melanie.wakefield{at}cancervic.org.au).
 |
INTRODUCTION |
|---|
 TOP INTRODUCTION METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONReferences |
|---|
One goal of the billboard advertising ban (as well as other MSA advertising and promotion restrictions) was to reduce youth exposure to cigarette advertising. However, previous research suggests that the tobacco industry is able to compensate for an inability to advertise in one medium by transferring advertising dollars to other marketing activities.2–6 Accordingly, there is concern that the MSA billboard advertising ban may merely shift tobacco advertising funding to other efforts, such as point-of-purchase marketing. In this study, we used data from a unique national sample of retailers to explore changes in the point-of-purchase environment after implementation of the billboard tobacco advertising ban.
|
METHODS |
|---|
|
TOPINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONReferences |
|---|
Catchment areas (communities) reflecting the area from which each school drew the majority of its student population were defined. Up to 30 retailers in each community were randomly selected for observation; in instances in which there were fewer than 30 retailers, all were included. The final sample of retailers (n = 3553) varied from 2 to 34 (mean = 18.4) per community. Of these establishments, 36 were excluded because they did not sell tobacco, and a further 55 were excluded owing to missing covariate values; thus, analyses involved a maximum of 3462 tobacco retailers in 191 communities.
Data Collection and Analysis
Observations were conducted between February 16 and June 23, 1999. Trained field staff teams unobtrusively collected information on tobacco product placement, extent of related advertising and promotions, and prices.
Levels of store interior, store exterior, and parking lot tobacco advertising were measured with a 4-point scale ranging from no advertising to advertising covering most of the store or storefront. Prevalence of low-height (less than 3.5 ft [105 cm]) ads was noted, and the number of tobacco-related functional objects (i.e., items owned by the store, such as clocks and shopping baskets, that are labeled with a cigarette brand) was recorded. The prevalence of a variety of promotions, including multipack discounts and gifts offered with purchases, was recorded.
SAS (version 6.12) was used in conducting logistic regression analyses that attempted to determine the effect of the ban on the prevalence of store interior, store exterior, and parking lot tobacco advertising, tobacco promotions, and functional objects. Cumulative logit analyses were used to examine the relationship between ban date and extent of interior, exterior, and parking lot advertising and number of functional objects.
|
RESULTS |
|---|
|
TOPINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONReferences |
|---|
shows characteristics of the sample. Observations were made in 1484 stores (43%) before April 24, 1999, and 1978 stores (57%) were observed on or after that date.
|
indicates that, in comparison with tobacco retailers observed before the billboard ban, those observed thereafter evidenced significant increases in the prevalence of interior tobacco advertising and the prevalence and extent of exterior tobacco advertising. Highly significant increases were found in the prevalence of all 3 types of cigarette promotions and the number of tobacco-related functional objects. However, there was no significant change in the extensiveness of interior advertising, low-height advertising, or parking lot advertising.
|
|
DISCUSSION |
|---|
|
TOPINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONReferences |
|---|
Point-of-purchase advertising increases are of particular concern to those seeking reductions in smoking among teenagers. There is growing evidence that cigarette advertising and promotions increase youth smoking9–15 and that youths are more responsive to such marketing than are adults.4 Research shows that tobacco advertising has both predisposing and reinforcing effects on youth smoking, acting as an inducement to experimentation with smoking as well as reinforcing continued progression toward regular smoking.12 For example, one study showed that, in comparison with students who saw pictures of stores with no tobacco advertising, students exposed to photographs of stores with tobacco ads perceived that tobacco was significantly easier to acquire, believed more of their peers had tried and approved of smoking, and expressed weaker support for tobacco control policies such as advertising restrictions and cigarette price increases.16
Also, a merchant intervention study conducted in Baltimore, Md, showed that youths were more likely to attempt cigarette purchases in stores with exterior cigarette advertising depicting models who were youthful in appearance than in stores without similar ads.17 In that 3 of 4 teenagers visit a convenience store at least once per week,18 these research studies suggest that the point-ofpurchase environment may have important influences on youths in terms of making tobacco use seem normative and, ultimately, increasing the likelihood of smoking initiation.
In conclusion, evidence suggests that point-of-purchase advertising and promotions have increased since implementation of the MSA billboard tobacco advertising ban. These increases, at least in part, are likely to have resulted from the shifting of resources once spent on billboard advertising to other marketing efforts. As a result of this shift, the intended effect of the billboard advertising ban may not be realized, because overall exposure to advertising and promotions may not be reduced. Further research is needed to examine the impact of the billboard ban and other MSA restrictions on tobacco company marketing strategies and on youth and adult smoking.
|
Acknowledgments |
|---|
We wish to thank members of the ImpacTeen Research Group for input into instrument design, Jaana Myllyluoma and the team at Battelle Centers for Public Health Research and Evaluation for data collection, and Erin Ruel for advice on data analysis.
|
Footnotes |
|---|
M. A. Wakefield contributed to developing the survey instruments, supervised the analysis, and wrote the article. Y. M. Terry-McElrath undertook the data analysis and contributed to the writing of the article. F. J. Chaloupka and D. C. Barker conceived the study. F. J. Chaloupka, D. C. Barker, S. J. Slater, P. I. Clark, and G. A. Giovino contributed to developing the survey instruments and analyzing the data and assisted in the writing of the article.
Accepted for publication March 19, 2001.
|
References |
|---|
|
TOPINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONReferences |
|---|
2. Warner KE. Selling Smoke: Cigarette Advertising and Public Health. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association; 1986.
3. Reducing the Health Consequences of Smoking: 25 Years of Progress. A Report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, Md: Public Health Service; 1989.
4. Pollay RA, Siddarth S, Siegel M, et al. The last straw? Cigarette advertising and realized market shares among youth and adults, 1979–1993. J Marketing.1996;60:1–16.
5. Saffer H. Economic issues in cigarette and alcohol advertising. J Drug Issues.1998;28:781–793.
6. Saffer H, Chaloupka F. Tobacco advertising: economic theory and international evidence. J Health Economics.2000;19:1117–1137.[Medline]
7. Wakefield MA, Terry YM, Chaloupka FJ, et al. Changes at the point-of-sale for tobacco following the 1999 tobacco billboard ban. Available at: http://www.uic.edu/orgs/impacteen/pub_fs/htm. Accessed February 26, 2001.
8. Promo Sourcebook Supplement. Englewood, NJ: Point of Purchase Advertising Institute; 1999.
9. Pierce JP, Lee L, Gilpin EA. Smoking initiation among adolescent girls, 1988 through 1994: an association with targeted advertising. JAMA.1994;271:608–611.[Abstract]
10. Pierce JP, Gilpin E. A historical analysis of tobacco marketing and the uptake of smoking by youth in the United States: 1890–1977. Health Psychol.1995;14:1–9.
11.
Feighery EC, Borzekowski DLG, Schooler C, Flora J. Seeing, wanting, owning: the relationship between receptivity to tobacco marketing and smoking susceptibility in young people. Tob Control.1998;7:123–128.
12. Preventing Tobacco Use Among Young People: A Report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, Md: Public Health Service; 1994.
13.
Pierce JP, Choi WS, Gilpin EA, Farkas AJ, Berry CC. Tobacco industry promotion of cigarettes and adolescent smoking. JAMA.1998;279:511–515.
14.
Biener L, Seigel M. Tobacco marketing and adolescent smoking: more support for a causal inference. Am J Public Health.2000;90:407–411.
15.
Schooler C, Feighery E, Flora JA. Seventh graders' self-reported exposure to cigarette marketing and its relationship to their smoking behavior. Am J Public Health.1996;86:1216–1221.
16. Henriksen L, Jackson C. Reliability of children's self-reported cigarette smoking. Addict Behav.1999;24:271–277.[Medline]
17. Voorhees CC, Yanek LR, Stillman FA, Becker DM. Reducing cigarette sales to minors in an urban setting: issues and opportunities for merchant intervention. Am J Prev Med.1998;14:138–142.[Medline]
18. The Point of Purchase Advertising Industry Fact Book. Englewood, NJ: Point of Purchase Advertising Institute; 1992.
Related articles in AJPH:
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  E C Feighery, N C Schleicher, T B. Cruz, and J B Unger An examination of trends in amount and type of cigarette advertising and sales promotions in California stores, 2002-2005 Tob. Control, April 1, 2008; 17(2): 93 - 98. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J. E. Cohen, L. C. Planinac, S. C. O'Connor, A. M. Lavack, D. J. Robinson, and F. E. Thompson KEEPING THE POINT-OF-SALE ENVIRONMENT AT THE FOREFRONT Am J Public Health, January 1, 2008; 98(1): 5 - 6. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. J. Slater, F. J. Chaloupka, M. Wakefield, L. D. Johnston, and P. M. O'Malley The Impact of Retail Cigarette Marketing Practices on Youth Smoking Uptake Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, May 1, 2007; 161(5): 440 - 445. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. B Reed, C. M Anderson, and D. M Burns The temporal relationship between advertising and sales of low-tar cigarettes Tob. Control, December 1, 2006; 15(6): 436 - 441. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
B. R Loomis, M. C Farrelly, and N. H Mann The association of retail promotions for cigarettes with the Master Settlement Agreement, tobacco control programmes and cigarette excise taxes Tob. Control, December 1, 2006; 15(6): 458 - 463. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. M Lavack and G. Toth Tobacco point-of-purchase promotion: examining tobacco industry documents. Tob. Control, October 1, 2006; 15(5): 377 - 384. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
B. A. Primack, J. D. Aronson, and A. A. Agarwal AN OLD CUSTOM, A NEW THREAT TO TOBACCO CONTROL Am J Public Health, August 1, 2006; 96(8): 1339 - 1339. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
B R Loomis, M C Farrelly, J M Nonnemaker, and N H Mann Point of purchase cigarette promotions before and after the Master Settlement Agreement: exploring retail scanner data. Tob. Control, April 1, 2006; 15(2): 140 - 142. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
W. M. Trochim, D. A. Cabrera, B. Milstein, R. S. Gallagher, and S. J. Leischow Practical Challenges of Systems Thinking and Modeling in Public Health Am J Public Health, March 1, 2006; 96(3): 538 - 546. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. J. Lewis and O. Wackowski Dealing With an Innovative Industry: A Look at Flavored Cigarettes Promoted by Mainstream Brands Am J Public Health, February 1, 2006; 96(2): 244 - 251. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 Y.-C. Chuang, C. Cubbin, D. Ahn, and M. A Winkleby Effects of neighbourhood socioeconomic status and convenience store concentration on individual level smoking J. Epidemiol. Community Health, July 1, 2005; 59(7): 568 - 573. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
L. Henriksen, E. C. Feighery, Y. Wang, and S. P. Fortmann Association of Retail Tobacco Marketing With Adolescent Smoking Am J Public Health, December 1, 2004; 94(12): 2081 - 2083. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
F A Sloan, C A Mathews, and J G Trogdon Impacts of the Master Settlement Agreement on the tobacco industry Tob. Control, December 1, 2004; 13(4): 356 - 361. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A Lambert, J D Sargent, S A Glantz, and P M Ling How Philip Morris unlocked the Japanese cigarette market: lessons for global tobacco control Tob. Control, December 1, 2004; 13(4): 379 - 387. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
T Dewhirst POP goes the power wall? Taking aim at tobacco promotional strategies utilised at retail Tob. Control, September 1, 2004; 13(3): 209 - 210. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
L Henriksen, E C Feighery, N C Schleicher, H H Haladjian, and S P Fortmann Reaching youth at the point of sale: cigarette marketing is more prevalent in stores where adolescents shop frequently Tob. Control, September 1, 2004; 13(3): 315 - 318. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. T. Braverman and L. E. Aaro Adolescent Smoking and Exposure to Tobacco Marketing Under a Tobacco Advertising Ban: Findings From 2 Norwegian National Samples Am J Public Health, July 1, 2004; 94(7): 1230 - 1238. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. J. Lewis, S. G. Yulis, C. Delnevo, and M. Hrywna Tobacco Industry Direct Marketing after the Master Settlement Agreement Health Promot Pract, July 1, 2004; 5(3_suppl): 75S - 83S. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
E. Ruel, N. Mani, A. Sandoval, Y. Terry-McElrath, S. J. Slater, C. Tworek, and F. J. Chaloupka After the Master Settlement Agreement: Trends in the American Tobacco Retail Environment from 1999 to 2002 Health Promot Pract, July 1, 2004; 5(3_suppl): 99S - 110S. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
E C Feighery, K M Ribisl, P I Clark, and H H Haladjian How tobacco companies ensure prime placement of their advertising and products in stores: interviews with retailers about tobacco company incentive programmes Tob. Control, June 1, 2003; 12(2): 184 - 188. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
